Air and water are essential to life. They're also very effective vehicles for spreading germs. A range of chemical and microbial hazards can harm our health if they contaminate our air and water above certain levels.

The five main pollutants in air are:

• Sulphur dioxide
• Nitrogen dioxide
• Ozone
• Carbon monoxide
• Particles

Key Fact:
The average UK household uses about 352 litres of water every day—about 147 liters per person. Chemical hazards in water include lead, arsenic and benzene. Microbial hazards include bacteria (which can cause cholera, for example), viruses (which can cause Hepatitis A), and parasites such as cryptosporidium. You can pick up germs by drinking, washing with or swimming in contaminated water.

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In both developed and rapidly industrialising countries, the major historic air pollution problem has typically been high levels of smoke and sulphur dioxide (SO₂) arising from the combustion of sulphur-containing fossil fuels such as coal for domestic and industrial purpose. Today major SO₂ problems now only tend to occur in cities in which coal is still widely used for domestic heating, in industry and in power stations. The major threat to clean air is now posed by traffic emissions. Petrol and diesel-engined motor vehicles emit a wide variety of pollutants, principally carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and particulates (PM10), which have an increasing impact on urban air quality. In addition, photochemical reactions resulting from the action of sunlight on nitrogen dioxide leads to the formation of ozone, a secondary long-range pollutant, which impacts in rural areas often far from the original emission site. In all except worst-case situations, industrial and domestic pollutant sources, together with their impact on air quality, tend to be steady-state or improving over time. However, traffic pollution problems are worsening world-wide.

If your health is generally good, the levels of air pollution that we normally experience in the UK are unlikely to have any serious short-term effects. But you may encounter more air pollution when travelling to other countries. When air pollution levels are high, some people experience eye irritation, coughing and painful or difficult breathing. Individuals with lung diseases, such as chronic bronchitis or emphysema, or heart disease are at greater risk—especially if they are elderly. If you suffer from asthma, you may find that air pollution triggers an attack.

Below are the health effects associated with high levels of the five most common air pollutants.

Exposure to these air pollutants is also likely to have long-term health effects. Other air pollutants—such as benzene, lead and dioxins—have a wide range of health effects, including cancer, nervous system disease, development problems, and birth defects. Although our knowledge about the long-term health effects of air pollution is limited, experts suggest that cutting long-term exposure to fine particles by 50 percent could increase our average life expectancy by as much as 11 months.

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Key Fact:
Air pollution levels can be high on bonfire night. If you're sensitive, stay indoors with the windows closed. Daily weather forecasts often include a report on air pollution levels, particularly in the summer when levels are high. If you have asthma or another lung disease, your symptoms are unlikely to change when levels are low (1-3) or moderate (4-6). Your symptoms may get worse when air pollution levels reach high (7-9) or very high (10), especially if you are elderly. If this happens, you may need to change your treatment or consult your doctor.

• If you find it harder to breathe on hot sunny days, avoid energetic outdoor activities—especially in the afternoons when pollution levels are higher.
• If your child has asthma, they should still be able to take part in normal activities, but they may need to use their reliever inhaler more before they start.
• If traffic fumes make breathing more difficult, avoid busy streets as much as you can.
• If you suffer from a heart condition and notice a change in your symptoms, get medical advice.

If you must drive, drive smoothly. You'll save fuel and your engine will pollute less. It's also important to maintain your car. Keep the engine properly tuned and the tyres at the right pressure.

A Burning Problem
The highway isn't the only place you'll find pollution. At home, burning solid fuels or household waste (particularly plastics, rubbers, foams and paints) will also contribute to poor air quality.

• Avoid burning solid fuels, if possible.
• If you live in a smoke control area, burn only authorised smokeless fuels (your local authority can advise).
• Avoid lighting bonfires, especially when pollution levels are high and the weather is still and cold.
• Only burn dry material. Never burn household waste, particularly plastics, rubbers, foams and paints.

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Most of us spend the majority of our time indoors—where we encounter a number of chemical and microbial air pollutants. Chemical pollutants come from a wide range of sources, including tobacco smoke, furnishings, gas cookers and boilers, paints, cleaning materials and chemicals. The health risks associated with many chemicals are only of concern when exposure reaches high levels. For example, you can be exposed to high levels of noxious chemicals in paints while decorating.

• Gas cookers are a major source of nitrogen dioxide, which may contribute to respiratory illness.
• Formaldehyde is present at low levels in chip board, paint, fabrics and cigarette smoke. High concentrations of formaldehyde can cause eye and airway irritation, asthma and cancer.
• High levels of exposure are often associated with particular activities—for example, the chemicals in paint while decorating.

• Runny noses
• Upper respiratory symptoms
• Asthma
• Allergic skin reactions
• Tiredness and headaches

• Clean the bathroom regularly. Wipe down walls and surfaces with a suitable disinfectant.
• Remove debris from extractor fans and replace filters as necessary. Always follow the manufacturer's instructions.
• Cover pans when cooking.
• Dry laundry outside, if possible. If you dry clothes inside, open a window and close the door to the rest of the house.
• Insulate cold water pipes to reduce condensation. Make repairs to leading pipes and rising damp.
• Always follow the manufacturer's advice when using chemicals or other products. This may include advice such as only using the product in a well-ventilated area.
• Don't smoke indoors.

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Safe, clean water is vital for drinking and food preparation, as well as for home and personal hygiene. Many diseases—including cryptosporidiosis, cholera, typhoid, and dysentery—are spread through drinking water that has been contaminated with faeces or through food preparation. You can contract some infections by washing with or swimming in contaminated water.

Although water quality is high in the UK, outbreaks of water-borne infections from the piped water supply do occur occasionally. When this happens, water companies and public health workers act quickly to alert people to any infection risks and prevent illness. In such an event, you may need to use an alternative source of water (such as bottled water) or treat your water (by boiling) to kill any germs in it. (Note: some bottled waters may have an increased mineral content that is not suitable for small babies.)

Key Fact:
Chlorine has been used successfully for almost one hundred years to kill bacteria in drinking water. The quality of piped water supplies varies considerably in other parts of the world. If you are unsure of the safety of the water, you will need to treat it—by boiling, filtering and/or adding bleaching powder or chlorine-releasing tablets in appropriate doses.

What You Can Do
Any water can potentially transmit germs—including water in swimming pools, rivers and the sea—so don't swim or play in polluted water and try not to swallow water while swimming. Never drink water from unsafe sources such as ponds and rivers. At home, observe these guidelines:

• Follow advice regarding your water supply provided by your water supplier or health provider.
• You do not need to use a water filter jug but if you do use one, be sure to follow the manufacturer's instructions carefully.
• Do not use water from a hot water system or your bathroom taps for drinking and cooking. It usually comes from the storage tank in the loft and is not as fresh or safe as water directly from the mains. Use the cold water tap in the kitchen.
• Keep the water tank in your loft clean and covered. Your water company or a professional plumber can advise.
• If you have lead water pipes in your home (unlikely if your home was built after 1970), you may wish to consider replacing them with copper or plastic pipes. Ask your water company for advice or visit The Drinking Water Inspectorate website at http://www.dwi.gov.uk/ for more information.
• If your water supply looks cloudy or discoloured, tastes different or smells funny, contact your water company for advice. You can find contact numbers listed under WATER in your Telephone Directory.

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The quality of tap water in the UK is usually very high and therefore it is not normally necessary to treat tap water further. However there may be occasion where additional treatment may be necessary. Always follow the recommendation given by your local Water Authority. Even when water looks clear, it can still contain enough bacteria to cause illness. If you need to decontaminate your water, there are three primary ways to do so: boiling, chemical disinfection and filtration.

Boiling water at 100 degrees Celsius for three minutes will make water safe in most cases. If there is a particular risk of infection, you may need to boil it longer.

Chemical disinfection can be accomplished by adding chlorine solution, chlorine tablets, bleaching powder or iodine. Follow the manufacturer's instructions carefully. Be sure to use the right amount and leave it for the correct amount of time. Dirty or cloudy water can be treated by following the sequence of steps below:

• Treat with alum and bleaching powder
• Store for at least two hours
• Decant or filter (e.g., through a clean cloth) before chemically disinfecting the water.

Storing and Using Water
Clean water can quickly become re-contaminated with germs if it is stored and used inappropriately. When you store water in your home, make sure you store it in clean, covered containers. If you use a water filter jug, throw away any unused water after 24 hours and refill the jug. To prevent bacterial growth, you must keep the jug clean and keep the water covered in the fridge.

• Store water in clean, covered containers in a clean, cool place.
• If possible use storage containers fitted with a tap or pouring spout so hands and other vessels cannot be dipped into the water.
• After each use, thoroughly rinse water containers in clean water and regularly disinfect them.
• Do not top containers up. Empty, clean and then refill.
• To minimise the risk of contamination, minimise the time that water is stored.
• Do not contaminate water by dipping unclean hands and vessels into it.

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Key Fact:
Without adequate supplies of clean water, infectious diseases such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery and diarrhoea—along with skin and eye infections—are much more common. The quality of water supplies varies considerably around the globe so it pays to take care with water when abroad—particularly in less developed countries. The Department of Health website at www.doh.gov.uk/traveladvice offers useful health information and advice for travellers. Commonsense tips apply overseas-such as always washing your hands after using the toilet and before handling food or eating. Take extra care with food abroad since it may have been prepared with contaminated water or by hands washed in unsafe water.

Other steps you can take:

• When travelling to other countries, pack water disinfection tablets (available at most pharmacies and airports).
• If you have any doubts about the water available for drinking, washing food or cleaning teeth, boil it, use a water disinfection tablet, or use bottled water from sealed containers.
• Avoid ice unless it is made from treated and chlorinated water. This extends to water used to keep food cool as well as ice in drinks.
• Hot tea or coffee, wine, beer, carbonated water and soft drinks, and packaged or bottled fruit juices are usually safe to drink.
• Eat freshly cooked food that is thoroughly cooked and still piping hot. Thorough cooking kills most germs.
• Avoid uncooked food unless you can peel or shell it yourself.
• Avoid food that has been left standing around or that has been touched by insects or other pests.
• Avoid ice cream from unreliable sources.
• Fish and shellfish harvested from rivers contaminated with sewage can be a problem. Uncooked shellfish, such as oysters, is a particular hazard.

• The Drinking Water Inspectorate at http://www.dwi.gov.uk
• The Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs at http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/airquality/airpoll/10.htm
• The UK National Air Quality Information Archive at http://www.airquality.co.uk/archive/index.php

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